Cyberwarfare

Estimated read time 18 min read
Estimated read time 18 min read

Introduction: What Is Cyberwar?

What comes to mind when you hear the word “Cyberwar”? For many, it’s a term shrouded in mystery and foreboding.

Table of Contents

In this comprehensive guide, we aim to dissect the complex world of cyberwarfare, revealing its key players, underlying technologies, and the legal frameworks governing this new arena of conflict.


Defining Cyberwar

What Constitutes an Act of Cyberwar?

When we talk about cyberwar1, we refer to deliberate actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and damage another nation’s computers or information networks. These actions can include espionage, sabotage, and the spreading of propaganda.

Legal Frameworks Surrounding Cyberwar

The legal landscape surrounding cyberwar is still murky. While international law, such as the United Nations Charter, provides some guidance on what may constitute an act of war, the specifics of cyberwarfare often fall into gray areas. Many countries are now pushing for clearer international rules and guidelines.


History and Origins

Early Instances of Cyberwar

Cyberwar is not a 21st-century invention. Its roots can be traced back to the late 20th century, during the Cold War era. However, the scale and impact have escalated significantly with the advent of the internet and sophisticated hacking tools.

The evolution of cyberwar is marked by significant incidents from 2006 onwards, where state-backed hackers targeted government networks and critical infrastructure. Key events include the discovery of Stuxnet2, a military-grade cyber weapon, in 2010, and escalating cyberattacks by nation-state actors targeting various sectors worldwide, exemplifying the growing menace of cyberwarfare in the 21st century​1​.

Role of State and Non-State Actors

State actors like governments and military organizations were the early pioneers in this field. However, non-state actors like terrorist organizations and hacktivist groups have also joined the fray, complicating the landscape further.


The Key Players

Nations Actively Involved

The United States, Russia, China, North Korea, and Iran are among the nations with advanced cyberwar capabilities. These countries not only have the skills but also the political will to engage in cyberwarfare.

Delving into National Cyber Capabilities

According to the U.S. intelligence community, these nations are identified as predominant actors posing significant cyber threats to national security.

Their individual cyber programs have been highlighted, yet a critical aspect remains unexplored – the potential of collaborative cyber-attacks amplifying disruptive effects on a global scale​​3.

The U.S. Intelligence Community’s Annual Threat Assessment highlights China4, Russia, Iran, and North Korea as major cyber threats.

While China leads in cyber espionage, Iran is noted for retaliatory cyber actions against stronger foes. Russia leverages cyber capabilities to influence other nations’ decisions, targeting critical infrastructure. North Korea, though lesser discussed, can execute surprise cyber attacks due to its stealthy approach.

Role of Hackers and Hacktivists

Hackers and hacktivists add another layer of complexity. Sometimes working independently, and sometimes employed covertly by nation-states, these individuals and groups engage in cyber activities for various reasons, such as political beliefs, activism, or even personal gain.

Cyberwarfare
Cyberwarfare

Cyberwar Technologies

Malware, Ransomware, and DDoS Attacks

The types of technology used in cyberwar must be maintained and updated non-stop. Malware, ransomware, and DDoS attacks are common tools. Malware can be used to spy on or sabotage enemy networks, ransomware can hold critical data hostage, and DDoS attacks can overwhelm systems to render them useless.

Advanced Persistent Threats (APTs)

An APT is a prolonged, aimed attack on a specific target with the intention to compromise their system and gain information from or about that target.

These attacks are orchestrated by well-resourced and sophisticated adversaries, such as nation-state groups or organized criminal enterprises. The primary objective could range from espionage, data theft to network/system disruption or destruction.

These are highly sophisticated and can often go undetected for a long time. The covert nature of APTs is a result of the advanced tactics employed by attackers, which include a blend of social engineering and exploitation of vulnerabilities to gain unauthorized access to the targeted network.

Once inside, the attacker establishes a stronghold, making detection and removal extremely challenging.

APT campaigns are typically characterized by:

  • Persistent Engagement: Continuous efforts to access and maintain unauthorized access to the target, adapting to defenders’ efforts to resist the intrusion.
  • Sophisticated Tactics: Utilization of advanced malware strains and hacking techniques, often custom-developed for a particular operation.
  • Target Specific: Aims at specific organizations or sectors, driven by a well-defined objective which could be political, economic, or strategic in nature.

Cyber Espionage

Cyber Espionage is the digital arm of the intelligence-gathering spectrum, where covert methods are employed to obtain secrets and insights from adversaries or competitors. The two primary facets of cyber espionage include surveillance and data collection, with a broad array of techniques used to achieve these objectives.

Surveillance and Data Collection

When it comes to cyber espionage, it’s all about gathering intelligence. Surveillance activities can range from monitoring online communications to covertly infiltrating networks to steal sensitive data. These actions can be carried out by state-sponsored groups, organized criminal networks, or individual hackers with varying objectives such as political, economic, or military advantage.

The techniques employed include spear-phishing, malware injection, zero-day exploitation, and social engineering, among others. These methods facilitate unauthorized access to networks, enabling the interception of communications, theft of sensitive data, and monitoring of target activities.

Intelligence Agencies Involved

Central to the arena of cyber espionage are national intelligence agencies endowed with substantial resources and advanced technological capabilities. Agencies like the NSA in the United States, the FSB in Russia, and the MSS in China play pivotal roles in cyber espionage. They have the tools, the talent, and the mandate to engage in high-level cyber intelligence operations, safeguarding national interests while also advancing their nation’s strategic objectives on the global stage.

These agencies operate within a complex legal and ethical framework, often pushing the boundaries in the rapidly evolving domain of cyber operations. Their activities, shrouded in secrecy, make a significant impact on international relations and global cybersecurity dynamics.


Offensive and Defensive Strategies

In cyberwarfare, offensive strategies like preemptive strikes aim to compromise enemy networks before an attack. Conversely, defensive strategies focus on safeguarding domestic networks using firewalls and intrusion detection systems.

However, the cyber realm favors offense as even “active cyber defense5” doesn’t harm attackers, merely blocking attacks. Additionally, deterrence is challenging due to attribution issues in cyberattacks. The U.S.’s “Defend Forward6” strategy integrates attacking tactics in a defensive strategy, aiming to disrupt adversaries proactively, showcasing a blended approach in cyberwarfare strategies


Cyberwar Ethics

Ethical Considerations

The ethics of cyberwar are murky at best. The digital realm has blurred the traditional ethics of warfare, prompting a slew of questions regarding the proportionality of attacks, collateral damage, and the involvement of non-combatants. The abstract nature of cyberspace complicates the application of traditional ethical principles. There is a growing call for international guidelines that address these issues, urging the global community to come together to establish norms that can help govern cyber activities and prevent unfettered cyber warfare.

The Principle of Proportionality

One of the crucial ethical considerations in cyberwar is the principle of proportionality. This principle, borrowed from the ethics of traditional warfare, demands that the damage inflicted by a cyber attack should be proportional to the military advantage gained. However, assessing proportionality in cyberspace is challenging due to the abstract nature of digital assets and the potential for widespread collateral damage.

Civilian Involvement

The involvement of non-combatants is another ethical grey area. Unlike traditional warfare, the lines between combatants and non-combatants are blurred in cyberwar.

Cyberattacks can inadvertently affect civilians, as they rely on the same infrastructure targeted by adversaries. The potential for mass surveillance and data breaches further jeopardizes civilian privacy and security.

Rules of Engagement

Just like traditional warfare, cyberwar also has its unwritten rules of engagement. These often revolve around not targeting civilian infrastructure or causing loss of life. However, these rules are often bent, if not broken, given the anonymity and the lack of physical presence in cyberspace7.

The absence of a well-defined legal framework exacerbates the issue, leading to a sort of ‘wild west’ scenario where actors operate in a grey zone of legality and ethics.


Impact on Civilians

Critical Infrastructure Risks

Cyberwar doesn’t just impact government and military targets. Critical civilian infrastructure like power grids, hospitals, and financial systems can also be at risk. A successful attack on these can have devastating consequences, plunging societies into chaos — just imagine, suddenly the traffic lights all go on green….

The interconnectivity of these systems means that a cyber attack can have a ripple effect, leading to a widespread breakdown of essential services. The potential for significant damage to our lives and economic loss makes the protection of critical infrastructure a paramount concern in the cyberwarfare landscape.

Tangible Threats

The tangible threats posed by cyberwar on civilians are alarming, the disruption of power grids can lead to blackouts, affecting hospitals, emergency services, and daily life. Attacks on financial systems can result in economic turmoil, while targeting healthcare systems can compromise patient data and care delivery. We just cannot get around it, we have incorporated the internet in our life.

Data Breaches and Identity Theft

Another concern is the risk of large-scale data breaches that can lead to identity theft and fraud. Personal data can be weaponized and used against individuals in various harmful ways. The aftermath of data breaches often leaves individuals vulnerable to financial fraud, identity theft, and other forms of exploitation. Moreover, the stolen data can be sold on the dark web, further perpetuating the cycle of cybercrime.

Psychological Impact

The psychological impact of cyberwar on civilians is an understated aspect, the fear and uncertainty generated by cyber threats can lead to anxiety, stress, and a general sense of insecurity. Living under the constant threat of cyber attacks takes a toll on mental health, and to me, this showcases the broad spectrum of impacts cyberwar can have on individuals and communities.

Legal Protections

The evolving nature of cyberwar has prompted a call for legal protections for civilians. International law, including humanitarian law, is being examined for its applicability in cyberspace to ensure the protection of civilians amidst cyber conflicts.

The establishment of legal frameworks that define the rights and protections for civilians in the digital realm is a step towards mitigating the adverse effects of cyberwar on civilian populations.

International Cooperation

International cooperation is crucial in minimizing the impact of cyberwar on civilians. Nations coming together to set norms, share threat intelligence, and collaborate on cybersecurity initiatives can help create a safer cyber environment.

International cooperation is crucial in minimizing the impact of cyberwar on civilians.

Moreover, collective efforts to hold malicious actors accountable and promote transparency in cyber activities can contribute to a more secure and resilient cyberspace.


Real-world Examples

Notable Cyberattacks and Their Consequences

Real-world examples help to bring the concept of cyberwar out of the realm of theory. Attacks like Stuxnet, which targeted Iranian nuclear facilities, and the WannaCry ransomware attack, serve as cautionary tales of the destructive power of cyberwarfare.

Last year, 2022, there were several noteworthy cyber incidents8 targeting military and defense sectors across various countries:

  • In January, Poland’s military faced a cyber incident.
  • Ukraine’s Ministry of Defense in Kyiv was hit by a DDoS attack on February 159.
  • Russia’s military experienced a cyber incident10 on March 1.
  • The United Kingdom’s Ministry of Defense was targeted on March 1611.
  • Finland’s Ministry in Helsinki suffered a DDoS attack on April 812.
  • Russia’s military construction was targeted on April 19.
  • Estonia’s military in Tallinn faced a cyber incident on April 2213.
  • Romania’s Ministry of Defense in Bucharest was targeted on April 2914.
  • Germany’s Ministry of Defense in Bonn, NW, was hit by a DDoS attack in May15.
  • Canada’s air combat training in Montreal, QC, was compromised by ransomware in May16.

Cyberwar and Geopolitics

International Relations and Cyber Diplomacy

The realm of cyberwar has significant implications for international relations, cyberattacks can be both a cause and an outcome of diplomatic tensions. It might be cheaper to initiate a cyberattack instead of a full out war (don’t you agree?)

Cyber Diplomacy as an Extension of Foreign Policy

Increasingly, nations are realizing that their cyber activities are an extension of their foreign policy objectives. Just as economic and military power are leveraged in international negotiations, so too are cyber capabilities. This has led to the emergence of “cyber diplomats17,” specialized roles within the foreign affairs departments focusing on cyber issues.

Agreements and Treaties

To manage the growing risks associated with cyberwar, nations are working to create international norms and agreements. For example, the United Nations has considered several resolutions aimed at defining responsible behavior in cyberspace. Similarly, regional bodies like the European Union are actively discussing cyber norms and regulations. The Tallinn Manual is another noteworthy attempt to standardize international laws regarding cyberwar.

The Role of Corporations

Corporate Espionage

You might be surprised to learn that corporations often engage in activities that border on cyberwarfare. Corporate espionage involves stealing trade secrets, customer data, and other valuable information from competitors. These activities are often state-sponsored – which means there is a lot of funding available to carry out these cyberattacks..

Private Sector Defenses

Corporations are not just potential aggressors; they are also targets. As such, they invest heavily in cybersecurity measures to protect their assets. These companies employ cybersecurity professionals to identify vulnerabilities in their systems. Big cybersecurity companies suddenly become a wanted valuable asset and tool to keep unwanted guests out of the networks and data files.


Cyberwar Legislation

National and International Laws

Legislating cyberwar is a complex task. At the national level, countries like the United States have the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act18, while international laws are still in a nascent stage. The Tallinn Manual19 is one such attempt to standardize international laws regarding cyberwar.

Enforcement Challenges

Even with laws in place, enforcement is a significant challenge. Jurisdictional issues and the anonymous nature of the internet make it difficult to prosecute offenders.


Future Technologies

Quantum Computing

The future holds even more advanced technologies that could revolutionize cyberwarfare. Quantum computing, for instance, has the potential to break existing encryption methods, raising concerns about data security.

AI in Cyberwar

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is another emerging technology with significant implications for cyberwar. AI algorithms can automate the process of finding vulnerabilities in systems, making both offense and defense more efficient. Just imagine, non-stop cyberattacks, performed by AI, that are capable of adapting and finding new targets.


Financial Implications

Economic Costs

The financial burden of cyberwar is colossal. Governments spend billions on cybersecurity measures20, and the cost of recovering from attacks can be astronomical for corporations and governments alike.

Funding Cyber Warfare

The funding for cyber warfare often comes from national budgets, but there are also allegations of state-sponsored groups engaging in cybercrime to fund their activities. This blurs the lines between state actors and criminals.

$18.78 billion for cybersecurity in 2021

In 2021, the US government allocated approximately $18.78 billion for cybersecurity, with the Department of Defense receiving the most funding at $9.85 billion. This budget supports the Pentagon’s efforts to defend against cyberattacks and to enhance cyber warfare capabilities against potential adversaries.

Following the DoD, the Department of Homeland Security had a cybersecurity budget of $2.6 billion, indicating a prioritization of these two departments in the cyber defense agenda​.

DoD Cybersecurity budget in 2022

In 2022, the United States government allocated substantial resources towards cybersecurity. The president’s budget request included approximately $10.9 billion for civilian cybersecurity-related activities, representing an 11% increase compared to 202121. Of this amount, around $2.5 billion was designated for the Department of Homeland Security’s Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) to bolster the nation’s cyber defense capabilities.


Psychological Warfare

Social Engineering

Psychological warfare in the cyber realm often involves social engineering tactics. These are manipulative strategies used to deceive individuals into divulging confidential information. Think of phishing attacks, BEC attacks and AI-powered attacks that all try to mimic someone important so that the victim of the attack will perform steps in favor of the attackers.

Information Manipulation

Another facet of psychological warfare is the spread of disinformation. This can be used to create social discord or to influence public opinion, as seen in several recent election cycles.


Cybercrime vs Cyberwar

Distinguishing Features

It’s important to differentiate between cybercrime and cyberwar. While both involve illegal activities in the cyber realm, cyberwar is typically state-sponsored and aims at a broader strategic objective.

Overlapping Areas

However, there are areas where cybercrime and cyberwar overlap. For example, state-sponsored hackers may engage in criminal activities like ransomware attacks to fund their operations, or attacks on crypto marketplaces.


Reporting and Attribution

Identifying Cyber Attacks

One of the most challenging aspects of cyberwar is attributing attacks to specific actors22. Advanced techniques like IP spoofing make it difficult to trace the origin of an attack23. However, specialized cybersecurity firms are getting better at identifying the “digital fingerprints” of known hacking groups.

Reporting Mechanisms

When a cyberattack occurs, it’s crucial to report it to the proper authorities. This often involves national cybercrime units and, in some cases, international organizations like INTERPOL.


Government Initiatives

Federal Cyber Defense Programs

Governments around the world are ramping up their cyber defense efforts. Programs aimed at enhancing national cybersecurity are becoming more common. In the U.S., for example, the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) plays a critical role in coordinating national cyber defense.

Public-Private Partnerships

Public-private partnerships are emerging as a viable solution for enhancing cybersecurity. These collaborative efforts involve sharing of resources and information between government agencies and private corporations.


Role of Media

Media Coverage

The media plays a significant role in shaping public perception of cyberwar, as the media reporting is often sensationalized, leading to misconceptions about the scale and nature of cyber threats. The rebrand of Twitter to X by Elon Musk also shows how platforms such as X can be leveraged by APT to spread false info, but on the other side, it is certainly being used by cybersecurity professionals to exchange important information on cyberattacks, events and news.

Impact on Public Opinion

Media coverage can also influence policy decisions. When a cyber attack gets extensive media attention, it puts pressure on governments to respond, which could escalate the conflict further. In one of the attacks of ‘Anonymous Sudan‘, the group demanded ransom payments to the Kenyan government to stop their DDoS attacks.


Cyberwar Training

Educational Programs

As the cyber threat landscape evolves, so does the need for specialized training — Universities and private institutions offer courses on cybersecurity that include modules on cyberwarfare.

Military Training

Military organizations also offer specialized cyberwar training programs24. These courses prepare soldiers for the intricacies of cyber conflict, from offensive strategies to defense mechanisms25.


There are many myths surrounding cyberwar, such as the notion that it’s a problem only for the government and big corporations. In reality, anyone is at risk.


Economic Warfare

Impact on Global Economy

Cyberwar has far-reaching economic implications. Attacks on financial systems can destabilize economies, and the cost of cyber defense is a significant burden on national budgets. Companies that are impacted by cyberwar, often don’t end up well. Just remember the case of Diginotar in 2011.

Currency and Trade Wars

In this interconnected global economy, cyberwar can also be used as a tool for economic coercion, affecting currency values and international trade. It is a strong method of warfare and it is also cheap26.


Regional Focus: Asia

Cyber Activities in Asia

The Asian region has seen a surge in cyber activities, both defensive and offensive. Countries like China and North Korea are often cited as significant players in this arena.

Regional Impact

The impact of cyberwar in Asia is not just confined to the countries involved but extends to regional stability and international relations.


Regional Focus: Europe

EU’s Approach to Cyberwar

The European Union has been proactive in setting up cyber defense mechanisms and has even proposed legislation to govern cyber activities among member states.

Regional Impact

Just like in Asia, the impact of cyber activities in Europe extends beyond the nations involved, affecting the stability and security of the entire region.


Conclusion: The Future of Cyberwar

Emerging Trends

Personally, I do expect a big advance as the amount of professionals in this field is growing steady. While we take note of the integration of AI, quantum computing, and other advanced technologies — there will undoubtedly be a change in the landscape of cyberwarfare and cybersecurity.

References

  1. https://ccdcoe.org/uploads/2018/10/00_VirtualBattlefield.pdf ↩︎
  2. https://www.malwarebytes.com/stuxnet ↩︎
  3. https://www.csis.org/analysis/emerging-cyber-threats-no-state-island-cyberspace ↩︎
  4. https://www.csis.org/analysis/new-tail-chinas-wolf-warrior-diplomats ↩︎
  5. https://media.defense.gov/2018/Sep/18/2002041658/-1/-1/1/CYBER_STRATEGY_SUMMARY_FINAL.PDF ↩︎
  6. https://www.cyber.forum.yale.edu/blog/2021/7/20/defend-forward-adapting-offense-and-defense-strategy-to-cyberspace ↩︎
  7. https://www.csis.org/analysis/cyber-operations-during-russo-ukrainian-war ↩︎
  8. https://konbriefing.com/en-topics/cyber-attacks-2022-ind-military.html ↩︎
  9. https://twitter.com/DefenceU/status/1493628291844083723 ↩︎
  10. https://www.theregister.com/2022/03/02/russian_soldier_leaks/ ↩︎
  11. https://techmonitor.ai/technology/cybersecurity/ministry-of-defence-cyber-attack-supply-chain-army ↩︎
  12. https://yle.fi/a/3-12397024 ↩︎
  13. https://www.err.ee/1608573781/ummistusrunnakud-riigi-veebilehtede-vastu-jatkusid-teist-paeva ↩︎
  14. https://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-25525815-atacurile-cibernetice-care-vizat-guvernul-mapn-sri-hackerii-folosit-echipamente-retea-din-afara-romaniei-profitand-vulnerabilitati-ale-site-urilor.htm ↩︎
  15. https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/international/cyberangriff-russische-hacker-greifen-webseiten-deutscher-behoerden-an/28314912.html ↩︎
  16. https://therecord.media/top-aces-ransomware-attack-lockbit ↩︎
  17. https://www.clingendael.org/news/dutch-cyber-diplomats-gathered-together-training ↩︎
  18. https://www.justice.gov/jm/jm-9-48000-computer-fraud ↩︎
  19. https://ccdcoe.org/research/tallinn-manual/ ↩︎
  20. https://atlasvpn.com/blog/us-government-to-spend-over-18-billion-on-cybersecurity ↩︎
  21. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BUDGET-2022-PER/pdf/BUDGET-2022-PER-6-2.pdf ↩︎
  22. https://csbaonline.org/uploads/documents/CSBA_e-reader_CyberWarfare.pdf ↩︎
  23. https://archive.law.upenn.edu/live/files/3477-saalbach-k-methods-and-practice-2014 ↩︎
  24. https://magazines.defensie.nl/defensiekrant/2023/12/03_cto_12 ↩︎
  25. https://attack.mitre.org/ ↩︎
  26. https://www.forbes.com/sites/steveandriole/2020/01/14/cyberwarfare-will-explode-in-2020-because-its-cheap-easy–effective/ ↩︎